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Institutional racism (also known as institutionalized racism or institutionalised racism) is a form of racism that is a part of society. Whether implicitly or explicitly expressed, institutional racism occurs when any certain group is targeted and discriminated against based upon race. Any group can experience racism, in both the social and political institutions of society, such as disparities regarding employment, real estate and housing, health care, political power, incarceration rates, and education, among other things. Institutional racism can go unnoticed as it is not always explicit and can be overlooked. Institutional racism was defined by Macpherson in the 1999 report concerning the death of Stephen Lawrence. Macpherson defines institutional racism as: "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin."〔Home Office, ''The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry: Report of an Inquiry by Sir William Macpherson of Cluny'', Cm 4262-I, February 1999, para 6.34 (cited in ''Macpherson Report—Ten Years On'' in 2009; (available ) on the official British Parliament Website.〕 ==Classification== The concept of institutional racism re-emerged in political discourse in the late 1990s after a long hiatus, but has remained a contested concept that has been critiqued by multiple constituencies.〔Phillips, Coretta. "Institutional Racism and Ethnic Inequalities: An Expanded Multilevel Framework." Journal of Social Policy 40.1 (2011): 173-192. Academic Search Premier. Web. 28 February 2012.〕 Institutional racism is the differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society. When the differential access becomes integral to institutions, it becomes common practice, making it difficult to rectify. Eventually, this racism dominates public bodies, private corporations, public and private universities, and is reinforced by the actions of conformists and newcomers. Another difficulty in reducing institutionalized racism is that there is no sole, true identifiable perpetrator. When racism is built into the institution, it emerges as the collective action of the population. Professor James M. Jones postulates three major types of racism: (i) Personally mediated, (ii) internalized, and (iii) institutionalized.〔Jones, J. M. (1997). ''Prejudice and Racism'' (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.〕 Personally mediated racism includes the specific social attitudes inherent to racially prejudiced action (bigoted differential assumptions about abilities, motives, and the intentions of others according to), discrimination (the differential actions and behaviours towards others according to their race), stereotyping, commission, and omission (disrespect, suspicion, devaluation, and dehumanization). Internalized racism is the acceptance, by members of the racially stigmatized people, of negative perceptions about their own abilities and intrinsic worth, characterized by low self-esteem, and low esteem of others like them. This racism can be manifested through embracing "whiteness" (e.g. stratification by skin colour in non-white communities), self-devaluation (e.g., racial slurs, nicknames, rejection of ancestral culture, etc.), and resignation, helplessness, and hopelessness (e.g., dropping out of school, failing to vote, engaging in health-risk practices, etc.). Persistent negative stereotypes fuel institutional racism, and influence interpersonal relations. Racial stereotyping contributes to patterns of racial residential segregation and redlining, and shape views about crime, crime policy, and welfare policy, especially if the contextual information is stereotype-consistent.〔"Race, Ethnicity, and the Health of Americans." July–August 2005. Web. 27 February 2012. Institutional racism is distinguished from racial bigotry by the existence of institutional systemic policies, practices and economic and political structures which place minority racial and ethnic groups at a disadvantage in relation to an institution’s racial or ethnic majority. One example is public school budgets (including local levies and bonds) and the quality of teachers, which in the U.S. are often correlated with property values: rich neighborhoods are more likely to be more 'white' and to have better teachers and more money for education, even in public schools. Restrictive housing contracts and bank lending policies have also been listed as forms of institutional racism. Other examples sometimes described as institutional racism are racial profiling by security guards and police, use of stereotyped racial caricatures, the under- and mis-representation of certain racial groups in the mass media, and race-based barriers to gainful employment and professional advancement. Additionally, differential access to goods, services, and opportunities of society can be included within the term ''institutional racism'', such as unpaved streets and roads, inherited socio-economic disadvantage, and "standardized" tests (each ethnic group prepared for it differently; many are poorly prepared). Some sociological〔http://www.strategicpractice.org/system/files/race_power_policy_workbook.pdf〕 investigators distinguish between institutional racism and "structural racism" (sometimes called structured racialization).〔http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/docs/NewSR-brochure-FINAL.pdf〕 The former focuses upon the norms and practices within an institution, the latter upon the ''interactions'' among institutions, interactions that produce racialized outcomes against non-white people.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Snapshot of racialized Poverty in Canada )〕 An important feature of structural racism is that it cannot be reduced to individual prejudice or to the single function of an institution. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Institutional racism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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